La producción y el flujo del conocimiento en la carrera internacional por las vacunas de COVID-19
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.24201/fi.v62i1.2879Palabras clave:
COVID-19, vacunas, política del conocimiento, gobernanza de la salud, nacionalismo de las vacunasResumen
En este artículo se rastrea, desde la perspectiva de los estudios de ciencia y tecnología, la carrera internacional por las vacunas de covid-19 y se examinan los aspectos epistemológicos, organizativos, de regulación y financieros que posibilitaron su desarrollo. La producción y el flujo de conocimiento fue clave en la gestión de la covid-19. El impacto de la pandemia generó las condiciones para el rápido avance de la investigación y movilizó el ecosistema global de innovación biomédica. La competencia internacional por el control de las vacunas moldeó el desarrollo de los proyectos, mientras que las variaciones domésticas en la autonomía de las instancias reguladoras y la actuación de la comunidad científica delinearon el escrutinio público y los procesos de autorización. Se argumenta que la interacción entre la arena política y el desarrollo tecnocientífico configuró las opciones disponibles para la inmunización internacional y las controversias sobre seguridad, efectividad y justicia que han enmarcado su distribución y acceso.
Descargas
Citas
ABRAHAM, John y Courtney DAVIS, “Deficits, expectations and paradigms in British and American drug safety assessments: Prising open the black box of regulatory science”, Science, technology, & human values, vol. 32 (2007), pp. 399-431.
ALAM, Shahriar Tanvir, Sayem AHMED, Syed Mithun ALI, Sudipa SARKER, Golam KABIR y Asif UL-ISLAM, “Challenges to COVID-19 vaccine supply chain: Implications for sustainable development goals”, International Journal of Production Economics, 239, 2021, 108193.
ARADAU, Claudia y Jef HUYSMANS, “Critical methods in International Relations: The politics of techniques, devices and acts”, European Journal of International Relations, 20 (2004), pp. 596-619.
BANERJEE, Amitava, Suliang CHEN, Laura PASEA et al., “Excess deaths in people with cardiovascular diseases during the COVID-19 pandemic”, European Journal of Preventive Cardiology, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1093/eurjpc/zwaa155
BAR-ZEEV, Naor y Tom INGLESBY, “COVID-19 vaccines: early success and remaining challenges”, The Lancet, vol. 396, 2020, pp. 868-869.
“Biopharma leaders unite to stand with science”, AstraZeneca, 8 de septiembre 2020, https://www.astrazeneca.com/content/astraz/media-centre/press-releases/2020/biopharma-leaders-unite-to-stand-with-science.html (consulta del 15 de diciembre de 2020).
BLUME, Stuart, “Towards a history of ‘the vaccine innovation system’ 1950-2000”, en C. Hannaway (ed.), Biomedicine in the twentieth century: Practices, policies, and politics, Holanda, IOS-Press, 2008, pp. 255-286.
BOLLYKY, Thomas J. y Chad P. BOWN, “The tragedy of vaccine nationalism: Only cooperation can end the pandemic”, Foreign Affairs, vol. 99, 2020, pp. 96-108.
BRIGGS, Laura, Reproducing empire: Race, sex, science, and US imperialism in Puerto Rico, Berkeley, University of California Press, 2002.
BUCKLEY, Chris, “Chinese doctor, silenced after warning of outbreak, dies from coronavirus”, The New York Times, 7 de febrero 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/06/world/asia/chinese-doctor-Li-Wenliang-coronavirus.html (consulta del 20 de abril de 2021).
CALLAWAY, Ewen, “The unequal scramble for coronavirus vaccines-by the numbers”, Nature, vol. 584, 2020, pp. 506-507.
CAMPBELL, Charly, “Exclusive: The Chinese Scientist Who Sequenced the First COVID-19 Genome Speaks Out About the Controversies Surrounding His Work”, Time, 24 de agosto de 2020, https://time.com/5882918/zhang-yongzhen-interview-china-coronavirus-genome (consulta del 10 de abril de 2020).
CARVALHO, Simon y Mark ZACHER, “The International Health Regulations in Historical Perspective”, en Andrew Price-Smith (ed.), Plagues and politics: infectious disease and international policy, Londres, Palgrave Macmillan, 2001, pp. 235-261.
CHEN, Angus, “‘We’re Racing Time’: Biotech Companies Rush To Complete Coronavirus Vaccine”, WBUR, 21 de febrero de 2020, https://www.wbur.org/news/2020/02/21/were-racing-time-biotechnology-companies-rush-to-complete-coronavirus-vaccine (consulta del 12 de diciembre de 2020).
“China begins Phase I trial of COVID-19 vaccine”, Clinical Trials Arena, 23 de marzo de 2020, https://www.clinicaltrialsarena.com/news/china-covid-19-vaccine-trial-begins/ (consulta del 12 de diciembre de 2020).
“China’s COVID-19 vaccine diplomacy steals a march on US”, The Financial Times, 12 de noviembre de 2020, https://www.ft.com/content/ce9a4c98-49b5-4c24-9ff2-ed1c6a3f3412 (consulta del 12 de diciembre de 2020).
COHEN, Jon, “China’s vaccine gambit’, Science, 370 (6522), 2020, pp. 1263-1267.
“CEPI launches new call for proposals to develop vaccines against novel coronavirus, 2019-nCoV”, Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI), 3 de febrero de 2020, https://cepi.net/news_cepi/cepi-launches-new-call-for-proposals-to-develop-vaccines-against-novel-coronavirus-2019-ncov/ (consulta del 15 de diciembre de 2020).
COOPER, Sam, “China blamed for Canada’s multimillion-dollar coronavirus vaccine deal collapse”, Global News, 28 de agosto de 2020, https://globalnews.ca/news/7302194/canada-coronavirus-vaccine-deal-china/ (consulta del 10 de diciembre de 2020).
Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security Act, Public Law No. 116-136, 134 Stat., 281, 2020,.
“Coronavirus: anger in Germany at report Trump seeking exclusive vaccine deal”, The Guardian, 16 de marzo de 2020, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/16/not-for-sale-anger-in-germany-at-report-trump-seeking-exclusive-coronavirus-vaccine-deal (consulta del 19 de noviembre de 2020).
CRAVEN, Jeff, “COVID-19 vaccine tracker”, Regulatory Afairs Professionals Society, https://www.raps.org/news-and-articles/newsarticles/2020/3/covid-19-vaccine-tracker (consulta del 15 de febrero de 2021).
CROMMELINA, Daan J.A., Thomas J. ANCHORDOQUY, David B. VOLKIN, Wim JISKOOT y Enrico MASTROBATTISTA, “Addressing the cold reality of mRNA vaccine stability”, Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2021, 110 (3), pp. 997-1001.
CYRANOSKI, David, “What China’s coronavirus response can teach the rest of the world”, Nature, vol. 579, 2020, pp. 479-481.
DEO, Sahil, Shardul MANURKAR, Sanjana KRISHNAN y Christian FRANZ, “COVID-19 Vaccine: Development, Access and Distribution in the Indian Context”, ORF Issue Brief, vol. 378, 2020,.
DEVI, Sharmila, “US public health budget cuts in the face of COVID-19”, The Lancet Infectious Diseases, vol. 20, 2020, p. 415.
DOSHI, Peter, “COVID-19 vaccine trial protocols released”, BMJ, vol. 371, 2020, m4058.
DOSHI, Peter, “Will COVID-19 vaccines save lives? Current trials aren’t designed to tell us”, BMJ, vol. 371, 2020, m4037.
EGERT, Philip R. y Barbara L. ALLEN, “Knowledge justice: an opportunity for counter-expertise in security vs. science debates”, Science as Culture, vol. 28 (2017), pp. 351-374.
EMANUEL, Ezekiel J. et al., “An ethical framework for global vaccine allocation”, Science, vol. 369, 2020, pp. 1309-1312.
EPSTEIN, Steven, Impure science: AIDS, activism, and the politics of knowledge, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1996.
European Commission (EU), COVID-19: EU working on all fronts, €232 million for global efforts to tackle outbreak, Bruselas, CE, 2020.
European Commission (EU), “EU Strategy for COVID-19 vaccines”, Bruselas, CE, 2020.
FAZAL, Tanisha M., “Health diplomacy in pandemical times”, International Organization, 74, 2020, pp. E78-E97.
FEARNLEY, Lyle, “Viral Sovereignty or Sequence Etiquette? Asian Science, Open Data, and Knowledge Control in Global Virus Surveillance”, East Asian Science, Technology and Society: An International Journal, vol. 14, 2020, pp. 479-505.
FIDLER, David P., “Global health diplomacy and the Ebola outbreak”, en Sam Halabi, Lawrence O. Gostin y Jeffrey S. Crowley (eds.), Global Management of Infectious Disease After Ebola, Oxford, University Press, 2017, pp. 133-148.
FIDLER, David P., “Vaccine nationalism’s politics”, Science, vol. 369, 2020, p. 749.
FIDLER, David P., “Influenza virus samples, international law, and global health diplomacy”, Emerging infectious diseases, 14, 2008, pp. 88-94.
“French pharma giant Sanofi to give US preference on future COVID-19 vaccine”, France 24, 13 de mayo de 2020, https://www.france24.com/en/20200513-french-pharma-giant-sanofi-to-give-us-preference-on-future-covid-19-vaccine (consulta del 16 de enero de 2021).
GERTNER, Jon, “Unlocking the COVID Code”, The New York Times, 25 de marzo de 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2021/03/25/magazine/genome-sequencing-covid-variants.html (consulta del 28 de abril de 2021).
Gobierno de la República Popular de China, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, “MFA: China Has Announced Assistance to 82 Countries, WHO and African Union to Fight COVID-19”, 20 de marzo de 2020, https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/topics_665678/kjgzbdfyyq/t1759145.shtml (consulta del 12 de diciembre de 2020).
Gobierno del Reino Unido, Department of Health and Social Care, “£20m announced to fund vaccines for coronavirus and other infectious diseases”, 3 de febrero de 2020, https://www.gov.uk/government/news/20m-announced-to-fund-vaccines-for-coronavirus-and-other-infectious-diseases (consulta del 24 de febrero de 2021).
GOSTIN, Lawrence, “International infectious disease law: revision of the World Health Organization’s International Health Regulations”, JAMA, vol. 291, 2004, pp. 2623-2627.
GREEN, Andrew, “Li Wenliang”, The Lancet, vol. 395, 2020,.
GUTIÉRREZ, Emilio, Jaakko MERILÄINEN y Adrian RUBLI, “Electoral repercussions of a pandemic: evidence from the 2009 H1N1 Outbreak”, SSRN, 2021 (en preprensa).
HAFNER, Marco, Erez YERUSHALMI, Clement FAYS, Eliane DUFRESNE y Christian Van STOLK, COVID-19 and the cost of vaccine nationalism, Santa Monica, RAND Corporation, 2020.
HAURAY, Boris, “From regulatory knowledge to regulatory decisions: the European evaluation of medicines”, Minerva, núm. 55, 2017, pp. 187-208.
HEISBOURG, François, “From Wuhan to the world: How the pandemic will Reshape Geopolitics”, Survival, vol. 62, 2020, pp. 7-24.
HUZAIR, Farah y Steve STURDY, “Biotechnology and the transformation of vaccine innovation: The case of the hepatitis B vaccines 1968-2000”, Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, vol. 64, 2017, pp. 11-21.
“Jack Ma Commits $14.4 Million for Coronavirus Vaccine Efforts”, PND by Candid, 31 de enero de 2020, Philanthropy News Digest, https://philanthropynewsdigest.org/news/jack-ma-commits-14.4-million-for-coronavirus-vaccine-efforts (consulta del 18 de febrero de 2021).
JASANOFF, Sheila, The Fifth Branch. Science Advisers as Policymakers, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1990.
JINPING, Xi, “Fighting COVID-19 Through Solidarity and Cooperation Building a Global Community of Health for All”, Virtual Event of Opening of the 73rd World Health Assembly, 18 de mayo de 2020.
JOHNSON, Raymond M., Peter DOSHI y David HEALY, “COVID-19: Should doctors recommend treatments and vaccines when full data are not publicly available?”, BMJ, vol. 370, 2020, m3260.
JOHNSON, Tana, “Ordinary Patterns in an Extraordinary Crisis: How International Relations Makes Sense of the COVID-19 Pandemic”, International Organization, 74, 2020, pp. 148-168.
JOYCE, Kelly Ann, Jennifer E. JAMES y Melanie JESKE, “Regimes of Patienthood: Developing an Intersectional Concept to Theorize Illness Experiences”, Engaging Science, Technology, and Society, 6, 2020, pp. 185-192.
KIM, Jerome H. et al., “Operation Warp Speed: implications for global vaccine security”, The Lancet Global Health, 2021, núm. 9, pp. 1-5.
KUPFERSCHMIDT, Kai, “Preprints bring ‘firehose’of outbreak data”, Science, vol. 367, 2020, pp. 963-964.
KURIAKOSE, Shinu, “Global health: Global health diplomacy”, Journal of Global Health, 10, 2020, 020354.
LAKOFF, Andrew, “The Right Patients for the Drug: Pharmaceutical Circuits and the Codification of Illness”, en Hackett et al. (eds.), The handbook of science and technology studies, Cambridge, The MIT Press, 2008, pp. 741-759.
LAKOFF, Andrew, “Global health security and the pathogenic imaginary”, en Jasanoff y Kim (eds.), Dreamscapes of modernity: Sociotechnical imaginaries and the fabrication of power, University of Chicago Press, 2015, pp. 300-320.
LARSON, Heidi J. y David A. BRONIATOWSKI, “Volatility of vaccine confidence”, Science, 375, 2021, pp. 1289.
LEESE, Matthias y Marijin HOIJTINK, “How (not) to talk about technology: international relations and the question of agency”, en Hoijtink y Leese (eds.), Technology and agency in international relations, Routledge, 2019, pp. 1-23.
LEZAUN, Javier y Catherine M. MONTGOMERY, “The pharmaceutical commons: Sharing and exclusion in global health drug development”, Science, Technology, & Human Values, vol. 40, 2015, pp. 3-29.
LIDSKOG, Rolf y Göran SUNDQVIST, “When does science matter? International relations meets science and technology studies”, Global Environmental Politics, 15, 2015, pp. 1-20.
LIPSCY, Phillip Y., “COVID-19 and the Politics of Crisis”, International Organization, 74, 2020, pp. E98-E127.
LIPSITCH, Marc y Natalie DEAN, “Understanding COVID-19 vaccine efficacy”, Science, vol. 370, 2020, pp. 763-765.
LOGUNOV, Denis Y., Inna V. DOLZHIKOVA, Olga V. ZUBKOVA et al., “Safety and immunogenicity of an rAd26 and rAd5 vector-based heterologous prime-boost COVID-19 vaccine in two formulations: two open, non-randomised phase 1/2 studies from Russia”, The Lancet, vol. 396, 2020, pp. 887-897.
MALLAPATY, Smriti y Heidi LEDFORD, “COVID-vaccine results are on the way-and scientists’ concerns are growing”, Nature, vol. 586, 2020, pp. 16-17.
MAMOA, Laura y Steven EPSTEIN, “The pharmaceuticalization of sexual risk: vaccine development and the new politics of cancer prevention”, Social Science & Medicine, vol. 101, 2014, pp. 155-165.
MAYER, Maximilian, Mariana CARPES y Ruth KNOBLICH (eds.), The Global Politics of Science and Technology, Suiza, Springer-Verlag, 2014, pp. 1-35.
MCNAMARA, Kathleen R. y Abraham L. NEWMAN, “The Big Reveal: COVID-19 and Globalization’s Great Transformations”, International Organization, vol. 74, 2020, pp. 59-77.
MOLTER, Vanessa y Renee DIRESTA, “Pandemics & propaganda: how Chinese state media creates and propagates CCP coronavirus narratives”, Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review, 2020, 1 (3).
MURPHY, Flynn, “Inside China’s Response to Covid”, Nature, vol. 588, 2020, pp. S49-S51.
ORSINI, Amandine, et al., “Boundary concepts for boundary work between science and technology studies and international relations: Special issue introduction”, Review of Policy Research, 34, 2017, pp. 734-743.
Oxfam International, “Small group of rich nations have bought up more than half the future supply of leading COVID-19 vaccine contenders”, 17 de septiembre de 2020, https://www.oxfam.org/en/press-releases/small-group-rich-nations-have-bought-more-half-future-supply-leading-covid-19
PALTIEL, A. David, Amy ZHENG, Jason L. SCHWARTZ, “Speed versus efficacy: quantifying potential tradeoffs in COVID-19 vaccine deployment”, Annals of internal medicine, 4, 2021, pp. 568-570.
PETRYNA, Adriana, When experiments travel: clinical trials and the global search for human subjects, Princeton, University Press, 2009.
PHELPS, Jordyn y Karen TRAVERS, “Trump not concerned China may be covering up full extent of coronavirus outbreak”, ABC News, 7 de febrero de 2020, https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/trump-concerned-china-covering-full-extent-coronavirus-outbreak/story?id=68824019 (consulta del 19 de noviembre de 2020).
PHILIPE, Edouard, Twitter, @EPhilippe_LH, 14 de mayo de 2020, https://twitter.com/EPhilippe_LH/status/1260886560704258048?s=20 (consulta del 16 de enero de 2021).
PHILLIPS, Nicky, et al., "A leading coronavirus vaccine trial is on hold: scientists react”, Nature, 9 de septiembre de 2020, https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-02594-w (consulta del 25 de enero de 2021).
PubMED, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ (consulta del 20 de abril de 2021). “¿Qué pasará con la UE tras el COVID-19?”, La Vanguardia, 30 de marzo de 2020, https://www.lavanguardia.com/participacion/debates/20200330/48160119733/debate-futuro-union-europea-crisis-coronavirus-covid-19-brexit.html (consulta del 15 de diciembre de 2020).
ROBINS, Rebecca, Sharon LAFRANIERE, Noah WEILAND, David D. KIRKPATRICK y Benjamin MUELLER, “Blunders Eroded U.S. Confidence in Early Vaccine Front-Runner”, The New York Times, 8 de diciembre de 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/12/08/business/covid-vaccine-oxford-astrazeneca.html (consulta del 18 de diciembre de 2020).
ROGOŻA, Jadwiga y Iwona WIŚNIEWSKA, “Russia in the global ‘vaccine race’”, OSW Commentary, núm. 358, 2020.
ROURKE, Michelle, “Restricting access to pathogen samples and epidemiological data: a not-so-brief history of ‘viral sovereignty’ and the mark it left on the world”, en Eccleston-Turner y Brassington (eds.), Infectious Diseases in the New Millennium, Springer International Publishing, 2020, pp. 167-191.
SANTOS RUTSCHMAN, Ana, “The reemergence of vaccine nationalism”, Georgetown Journal of International Affairs, 2020 (en preprensa).
“Sharing research data and findings relevant to the novel coronavirus (COVID-19) outbreak”, Wellcome, 31 de enero de 2020, https://wellcome.org/coronavirus-covid-19/open-data (consulta del 19 de marzo de 2021).
SHIH, Gerry, “In coronavirus outbreak, China’s leaders scramble to avert a Chernobyl moment”, 29 de enero de 2020, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/in-coronavirus-outbreak-chinas-leaders-scramble-to-avert-a-chernobyl-moment/2020/01/29/bc4eb52a-4250-11ea-99c7-1dfd4241a2fe_story.html (consulta del 24 de abril de 2021).
SHROTRI, Madhumita, Tui SWINNEN, Beate KAMPMANN y Edward P. K. PARKER, “An interactive website tracking COVID-19 vaccine development”, Lancet Global Health, vol. 9, 2021, pp. 590-592.
SOIZA, Roy L., Chiara SCICLUNA y Emma C. THOMSON, “Efficacy and safety of COVID-19 vaccines in older people”, Age and Ageing, vol. 50, 2021, pp. 279-283.
STEENHUYSEN, Julie, “J&J, Moderna sign deals with U.S. to produce huge quantity of possible coronavirus vaccines”, Reuters, 30 de marzo de 2020, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-johnson-johnson-idUSKBN21H1OY (consulta del 9 de diciembre 2020).
The Independent Panel for Pandemic Preparedness and Response, Second Report on Progress, World Health Organization, 2021.
The White House, “Remarks by President Trump and Vice President Pence in Roundtable with Industry Executives on the Plan for Opening Up America Again”, 29 de abril de 2020, https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/briefings-statements/remarks-president-trump-vice-president-pence-roundtable-industry-executives-plan-opening-america/ (consulta del 23 de noviembre de 2020).
The White House, “Remarks by President Trump at Signing of a Proclamation in Honor of National Nurses Day”, 6 de mayo de 2020, https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/briefings-statements/remarks-president-trump-signing-proclamation-honor-national-nurses-day/ (consulta del 24 de noviembre de 2020).
The White House, “Remarks by President Trump on Vaccine Development”, 15 de mayo de 2020, https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/briefings-statements/remarks-president-trump-vaccine-development/ (consulta del 17 de diciembre de 2020).
“The Wuhan Lab Theory”, The Wall Street Journal, 6 de mayo de 2020, https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-wuhan-lab-theory-11588806940 (consulta del 22 de noviembre de 2020).
TOWGHI, Fouzieyha, “The biopolitics of reproductive technologies beyond the clinic: localizing HPV vaccines in India”, Medical Anthropology, vol. 32 (2013), pp. 325-342.
“Transcript: ABC News anchor David Muir interviews President Trump in Arizona”, ABC News, 6 de abril de 2020, https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/transcript-abc-news-anchor-david-muir-interviews-president/story?id=70523003 (consulta del 22 de noviembre de 2020).
TROUILLER, Patrice, Piero OLLIARO, Els TORREELE, James ORBINSKI, Richard LAING y Nathan FORD, “Drug development for neglected diseases: a deficient market and a public-health policy failure”, The Lancet, vol. 359, 2002, pp. 2188-2194.
TRUMP, Donald, Twitter, 22 de agosto de 2020, @realDonaldTrump, https://twitter.com/realDonaldTrump/status/1297138862108663808 (consulta del 17 de noviembre de 2020).
“Trumping science”, Nature Biotechnology, 38, 2020, pp. 1105, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41587-020-0713-y
University of Oxford y Global Change Data Lab, “Coronavirus (COVID-19) Vaccinations”, Our World in Data, https://ourworldindata.org/covid-vaccinations (consulta del 19 de febrero de 2021).
VARGINA, Valeria, “Sputnik V Vaccine as a Soft-Power Instrument of Russia”, Journal of Governance and Politics, 2020, 2 (7), (en preprensa).
VERMA, Raj, “China’s ‘mask diplomacy’to change the COVID-19 narrative in Europe”, Asia Europe Journal, vol. 18, 2020, pp. 205-209.
WALKER, Joseph y Jenny STRASBURG, “AstraZeneca Defends Dosing Error in COVID-19 Vaccine Trial”, 25 de diciembre de 2020, https://www.wsj.com/articles/astrazeneca-defends-dosing-error-in-covid-19-vaccine-trial-11606358805 (consulta del 8 de febrero de 2021).
WARREN, Rueben C., Lachlan FORROW, David Augustin HODGE, SR. y Robert D. TRUOG, “Trustworthiness before Trust — COVID-19 vaccine trials and the Black community”, New England Journal of Medicine, vol. 383, 2021, e121.
World Health Organization (WHO), Pandemic influenza preparedness framework for the sharing of influenza viruses and access to vaccines and other benefits, Francia, WHO, 2011.
World Health Organization (WHO), International Health Regulations (2005), Third Edition, WHO, 2016.
World Health Organization (WHO), “Listings of WHO’s response to COVID-19”, 29 de junio de 2020, https://www.who.int/news/item/29-06-2020-covidtimeline (consulta del 14 de octubre de 2020).
World Health Organization (WHO), A Coordinated Global Research Map, Geneva, WHO, 2020.
World Health Organization (WHO), What is the Access to COVID-19 Tools (ACT) Accelerator, how is it structured and how does it work?, Switzerland, WHO, 2021.
World Health Organization (WHO), COVID-19 vaccination: supply and logistics guidance: interim guidance, WHO, 2021.
“Whoever Finds the Vaccine Must Share It”: Strengthening Human Rights and Transparency Around COVID-19 Vaccines, Human Rights Watch, 2020.
WHORISKEY, Peter y Neena SATIJA, “How U.S. coronavirus testing stalled: Flawed tests, red tape and resistance to using the millions of tests produced by the WHO”, The Washington Post, 16 de marzo de 2020, https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2020/03/16/cdc-who-coronavirus-tests/ (consulta del 4 de diciembre de 2020).
WOOLSTON, Chris, “‘I’ve never worked harder’: the race to develop a COVID-19 vaccine”, Nature, vol. 587, 2020, pp. 322-322.
WU, Katherine J., “Safety Review Underway of AstraZeneca’s Vaccine Trial”, The New York Times, 10 de septiembre de 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/10/health/covid-astrazeneca-vaccine-trans.html (consulta del 7 de febrero de 2021).
“Six-episode large-scale documentary: Fighting with the Epidemic”, Xinhua News Agency, 31 de agosto de 2020, http://www.xhby.net/tuijian/202008/t20200831_6785354.shtml (consulta del 11 de marzo de 2021).
YOUDE, Jeremy, “MERS and global health governance”, International Journal, vol. 70 (2015), pp. 119-136.
ZAINI, Khairulanwar, “China’s Vaccine Diplomacy in Southeast Asia-A Mixed Record”, ISEAS Perspective 2021, núm. 86, 2021.
